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69-006

110TH CONGRESS

Rept. 110-818

HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES

2d Session

Part 1

--EDUCATION BEGINS AT HOME ACT OF 2008

AUGUST 1, 2008- Ordered to be printed

Mr. GEORGE MILLER of California, from the Committee on Education and Labor, submitted the following

R E P O R T

together with

MINORITY VIEWS

[To accompany H.R. 2343]

[Including cost estimate of the Congressional Budget Office]

SECTION 1. SHORT TITLE.

SEC. 2. FINDINGS AND PURPOSES.

SEC. 3. DEFINITIONS.

SEC. 4. GRANTS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD HOME VISITATION.

SEC. 5. TARGETED GRANTS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD HOME VISITATION FOR FAMILIES WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS.

SEC. 6. TARGETED GRANTS FOR EARLY CHILDHOOD HOME VISITATION FOR MILITARY FAMILIES.

SEC. 7. EVALUATION.

SEC. 8. REPORTS TO CONGRESS.

SEC. 9. SUPPORTING NEW PARENTS THROUGH HOSPITAL EDUCATION.

I. PURPOSE

The purpose of H.R. 2343, the `Education Begins at Home Act of 2008,' is to enable states, Indian tribes, tribal organizations, territories and possessions to deliver high quality programs of early childhood home visitation in order to promote positive outcomes for children and families by improving readiness for school, child health and development and positive parenting practices, and by reducing child maltreatment.

II. COMMITTEE ACTION

110TH CONGRESS

Full Committee hearing on `H.R. 2343--Education Begins At Home Act'

On Wednesday June 11, 2008, the Committee on Education and Labor held a hearing in Washington, D.C. entitled `H.R. 2343--Education Begins At Home Act.' The hearing reviewed the research on home visitation programs, the components necessary for implementing high quality programs, and the prevention benefits of home visitation programs. Witnesses spoke in favor of H.R. 2343 and highlighted how the legislation supports high quality programs. Testifying before the Full Committee were Heather Weiss, Ed.D., Founder and Director of the Harvard Family Research Project and Senior Research Associate and Lecturer at the Harvard Graduate School of Education; Laura A. Ditka, Esq., Allegheny County Deputy District Attorney and Chief of the Child Abuse Unit; Julie Fenley, mother of two children and military spouse and a participant in a home visiting program for military families; Makeda London, Program Manager, Healthy Families Program in Chicago, IL; William A. Estrada, Esq., Director of Federal Relations for Home School Legal Defense Association; and, Jeanne Smart, R.N., M.S.N., Director, Nurse-Family Partnership, Los Angeles County.

Legislative action

On May 16, 2007, Representatives Danny Davis (D-IL) and Todd Platts (R-PA) introduced H.R. 2343, the `Education Begins at Home Act.' The bill authorizes $400 million over three years for the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS) to allot grants for programs of early childhood home visitation on a formula basis to states, Indian tribes, tribal organizations, territories, and possessions. To receive funds, states and other eligible entities must demonstrate how they will support activities that will improve parental practices, child health and development, school readiness, and links to community services, and how they will lessen child mistreatment. States also must demonstrate that funds are used for programs with strong organizational capacities that employ well-trained staff. H.R. 2343 identifies the critical elements of quality home visitation programs, while allowing states to select specific service models that reflect the quality elements. The Secretary of HHS and states must each set-aside specified funds for evaluations of programs. In addition, the bill authorizes $50 million over three years for competitive grants for early childhood home visitation programs for limited-English proficient families and another $50 million over three years for such services for military families.

Full Committee Markup of H.R. 2343

On Wednesday, June 18, 2008 and Thursday, June 19, 2008, the Committee on Education and Labor considered H.R. 2343 in legislative session and reported the bill favorably, as amended, to the House of Representatives by voice vote. The Committee adopted the following amendments:

1. An amendment in the nature of a substitute offered by Chairman Miller (D-CA) was adopted by voice vote. The amendment in the nature of a substitute contained minor technical changes and the following modifications to H.R. 2343:

Changes a $400 million authorization for fiscal years 2008-2010 to a five-year authorization period with $150 million allotted for fiscal year 2009 and such sums thereafter.

Changes a $50 million authorization for fiscal years 2008-2010 for military families to a five-year authorization period with $20 million allotted for fiscal year 2009 and such sums thereafter.

Changes a $50 million authorization for fiscal years 2008-2010 for English language learners to a five-year authorization period with $20 million allotted for fiscal year 2009 and such sums thereafter.

Requires states and other eligible entities to identify and prioritize serving communities in high need of home visitation services, such as communities with low student achievement, high rates of teen pregnancy, high proportions of low income families, high incidences of child abuse, high volumes of children with developmental delays or disabilities, large concentrations of individuals currently serving in the Armed Forces, and large concentrations of individuals who formerly served in the Armed Forces.

Changes the formula to states from the proportion of children under age five to the proportion of children under age five from families with incomes below the poverty line.

Requires that programs funded under the Act adopt a home visiting model that is (1) research-based and grounded in knowledge related to home visiting and child health or child development, (2) linked to program-determined outcomes, (3) associated with an organization or institution that has comprehensive standards, including standardized training and on-going professional development, that has been evaluated and had results published in a peer-reviewed journal, and that has been in existence at least three years prior to being funded under the Act.

Adds a state match of ten percent in fiscal year 2011, twenty percent in fiscal year 2012, and thirty percent in fiscal year 2013.

Strikes changes to the Early Head Start program.

Strikes the requirement that hospitals offer parenting classes to new parents.

2. An amendment offered by Representative Hinojosa (D-TX), was adopted by voice vote. The amendment improves the coordination of services to children and families with English language learners.

The Committee rejected two amendments by rollcall vote. An amendment offered by Representative Souder (R-IN) was defeated by rollcall vote of 17-24, and an amendment offered by Representative Kuhl (R-NY) was defeated by rollcall vote of 17-25.

III. SUMMARY OF THE BILL

Purpose

The purpose of H.R. 2343, the Education Begins at Home Act of 2008, is to expand access to high quality home visitation programs for young children and their families in order to help support and strengthen families, increase school readiness and improve academic achievement, and decrease the incidence of child abuse and neglect.

Grants for Early Childhood Home Visitation

H.R. 2343 authorizes $150 million in fiscal year 2009 and such sums as necessary for fiscal year 2010 through fiscal year 2013 for the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS), in consultation with the Secretary of Education, to allot grants to states, Indian tribes, tribal organizations, territories, and possessions for funding early childhood home visitation programs. State plans are approved through a peer review process and funds are distributed based upon the proportion of children under age five from families residing in the state whose incomes are below the poverty line. Three percent of funds may be used for federal administrative costs, two percent of funds are reserved for payments to Indian tribes or tribal organizations, and no more than .5 percent are reserved for payments to territories and possessions. Additionally, funds are reserved for an independent evaluation and training and technical assistance for states.

To be eligible to receive funds under this bill, a state must submit an application that includes the results of a statewide needs assessment regarding home visitation services in the state; provide an assurance that the state will reserve ten percent of funds to provide training and technical assistance to home visitation programs and three percent of funds for evaluations of home visitation programs; submit a state plan with information on the home visitation programs to be funded under the Act; submit information on how the lead state agency will promote collaboration among a broad range of child- and family-serving programs and other information. The state must also provide an assurance that the state will identify and prioritize serving communities that are in high need of home visitation services, such as communities with low student achievement, high rates of teen pregnancy, high proportions of low income families, high incidences of child abuse, high volumes of children with developmental delays or disabilities, large concentrations of individuals currently serving in the Armed Forces, and large concentrations of individuals who formerly served in the Armed Forces.

In addition to using specified funds for evaluation and training and technical assistance, states shall use the funds provided under this Act to offer voluntary early childhood home visitation services to eligible families not less frequently than on a monthly basis. An eligible family includes a woman who is pregnant and the father of the child, and a parent or primary caregiver of a child under the age of entry into kindergarten. Primary caregivers may include foster parents, grandparents or other relatives of the child.

H.R. 2343 also authorizes twenty million dollars in fiscal year 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for fiscal year 2010 through fiscal year 2013 for the Secretary of HHS, in consultation with the Secretary of Education, to fund through a competitive process, programs serving eligible families with English language learners. Applications are approved through a peer review process.

Twenty million dollars are additionally authorized in fiscal year 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for fiscal year 2010 through fiscal year 2013 for the Secretary of Defense, in consultation with the Secretary of Education and the Secretary of HHS, to fund through a competitive process, programs serving eligible families with a family member in the Armed Forces. Applications are approved through a peer review process.

Evaluation

H.R. 2343 requires program evaluation by the Secretary of HHS and by states receiving funds. The bill requires three percent of funds be reserved for the Secretary to conduct an independent evaluation of the effectiveness of the home visitation programs carried out under the Act. No later than two years after the date of enactment of H.R. 2343, the Secretary of HHS must submit to the Committee on Education and Labor of the House of Representatives and the Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions of the Senate, an interim report on the evaluation. A final report on the evaluation must be submitted to these Committees no later than four years after the date of enactment of H.R. 2343. In addition, states must reserve three percent of funds for evaluations of the programs funded under this Act. Finally, local programs are required to use home visiting models linked to program-determined outcomes.

Public Awareness Campaign

The bill authorizes such sums as may be necessary for the Secretary of HHS to implement a public information and educational campaign to inform the public and new parents about the importance of the first five years of life.

IV. COMMITTEE VIEWS

The Committee believes investing in our nation's children during their first years of life is critical to helping them arrive at school healthy and ready to succeed. H.R. 2343 reflects an important investment that will not only serve to strengthen families but will ultimately save taxpayer money by reducing the need for child welfare services and special education services and by decreasing the rate of school failure. Parents are children's first and most important teachers and helping parents support their children's development is essential.

Research on brain and child development demonstrates that children's experiences in the first five years of life have a lasting impact on their health, learning, and behavior. Approximately eighty-five percent of brain growth occurs in the first three years of life. In these early years of life, infant and toddler brains create 700 new synapses per second. Synapses determine which neurons are activated in the brain, essentially affecting what the brain knows and what it can do. Neurons that are frequently activated by experiences and interactions are strengthened and those that do not get activated actually die or are `pruned.' 1 So, in fact, children's experiences both positive and negative actually change brain architecture and brain chemistry. 2 For example, one study found that infants whose mothers spoke to them more frequently knew almost 300 more words by age two than children who were not spoken to as frequently. 3 Conversely, exposure to chronic stress stimulates chemicals in the brain that limit the health and growth of synapses and negatively affect child health and behavior. 4 For example, children who are abused and neglected develop physical and mental health problems. 5 The Committee concludes that supporting healthy childhood experiences and reducing detrimental experiences are the best way to support early childhood development and provide children with the building blocks they need to succeed in school and in life. The relationship that forms between a parent and a child in these early years is vital to a child's learning and behavior.

Early Childhood Home Visitation Programs

The Committee believes the high quality early childhood home visitation programs authorized under H.R. 2343 provide a proven and cost-effective method for supporting parents' helping children, and strengthening families. Investment in these types of programs supports brain and child development and fosters healthy parent-child relationships. These voluntary programs provide parents and pregnant women with education and supportive services to help them better understand the learning and developmental needs of their children, build long-lasting positive parent-child bonds, and reduce family and parenting stress. The Committee understands that quality home visiting programs often link families to a variety of community services, including adult and family literacy programs, child care services, early education programs, child care resource and referral agencies, early intervention programs, child abuse prevention and treatment programs, health and mental health services, nutrition services, substance abuse treatment services, domestic and family violence prevention programs, employment agencies, fatherhood programs, income support programs, English as a Second Language services, and schools. Home visitation program activities are designed to promote positive outcomes for children and families in the areas of school-readiness, improved child health and development, positive parenting practices, reductions in child mistreatment, and parents' ability to support their children's social-emotional, cognitive, language, and physical development. Different program models target different types of families, ranging from first-time teen mothers to families, regardless of income, with children in a specific age group. These programs typically provide services anywhere from a two- to a five-year period.

At least thirty-seven states support home visiting programs. Yet, because of inadequate funding, only a small fraction of families who would benefit from such services are able to receive them. 6 There is currently no dedicated federal funding stream for early childhood home visitation programs. Local programs are funded through a combination of state, local, private, and federal funds, such as the Child Abuse and Prevention Treatment Act (CAPTA), Early Head Start, Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA), and Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF). The Committee believes that a dedicated federal funding stream for home visitation programs would allow more families to receive these important services, reduce child abuse, and improve children's achievement in school.

Child Maltreatment

Child abuse and neglect is a significant problem that can represent a toxic stress to brain and human development and have long-term consequences for children who suffer from abuse. According to the Department of Health and Human Services, an estimated 905,000 children were victims of maltreatment in fiscal year 2006. 7 The youngest children have the highest rate of victimization. For children age birth to one year, the rate of child victimization was 24.4 per 1,000 children. The victimization rate was 14.2 per 1,000 children for children between age one and three, and the victimization rate was 13.5 per 1,000 children for children between four and seven years of age. 8

The long-term effects of child abuse are far reaching and may include a higher risk for health and social problems as adults, for example, alcoholism, depression, drug abuse, eating disorders, obesity, sexual promiscuity, smoking, suicide, and certain chronic diseases. 9 Furthermore, child abuse and neglect can have long-term economic and societal costs through increased use of the juvenile and adult criminal justice systems, the increased health care costs resulting from mental illness, substance abuse, and domestic violence, and the loss of economic productivity due to unemployment and underemployment. A 2007 report by Prevent Child Abuse America, estimated the annual cost to the United States of child abuse and neglect at approximately 104 billion dollars. 10

In 2006, approximately 83 percent of victims were abused by a parent acting alone or in concert with another. 11 Some of the factors associated with parents who abuse or neglect their children, include physical and mental health problems, low cognitive functioning, lack of knowledge of child development and parenting skills, parental history of child abuse as a child, socio-economic status, job and marital situation, low self-esteem and feeling isolated, parent-child interaction, characteristics of the child, and one's attitude toward children and violence. 12

The Committee believes funding effective programs proven to reduce child abuse and neglect is a moral imperative. Early childhood home visitation programs provide a method for doing just that. This view of home visitation programs is shared by Joan E. Ohl, Commissioner for Children, Youth and Families at the Department of Health and Human Services. 13 By working closely with families at risk for child abuse, home visitation programs reduce parent stress, improve parenting techniques, and ultimately decrease incidents of child abuse.

School Readiness

Children's experiences prior to school entry have a lasting effect on learning and school success. Children who enter school behind their peers have great difficulty catching up and, on average, tend to stay behind their peers. 14 The achievement gap in elementary and secondary school between low income students and their more advantaged peers begins before kindergarten. 15 With nearly 12 million children under the age of five spending significant time in child care settings, efforts to improve the quality of child care and other early learning settings are critical to closing the achievement gap. Efforts to support the home environment so that families have the tools they need to help their children reach kindergarten healthy and ready to succeed are just as essential. Research demonstrates that home visitation programs are an effective method for supporting parents in their desire to educate their children.

Research on Models of Home Visitation

The Committee is keenly aware of the significant body of research surrounding high quality home visitation models. Such models are built upon extensive research on child development that demonstrates how influential parents and the home environment are to children's school achievement, mental health, and behavior. Children's early school achievement and literacy development are rooted in early adult-child communication and patterns of interaction. 16 Family risk factors and family stress have short and long term effects on youth and adolescents. 17 Home visitation programs aim to increase positive parenting practices, reduce harmful ones, and decrease family stress.

Empirical evaluations of early childhood home visiting conclusively demonstrate its positive effect on children and families. Though some home visitation models target different populations and may aim to influence distinct child and family outcomes, there is research demonstrating the effectiveness of each of the major national home visitation program models: Early Head Start, Healthy Families America, Home Instruction for Parents of Preschool Youngsters, Parent-Child Home Program, Parents as Teachers, and Nurse-Family Partnership. A meta-analysis of sixty studies on home visiting programs found such programs had a positive effect on children's cognitive and socio-emotional development, improved parenting practices and maternal education, and aided in the prevention of child abuse. 18 Another meta-analysis that included more recent studies also found a decrease in reports of abuse to child protective services and on child injuries. 19 For example, children whose families participate in home visitation programs show improved school performance and behavior at kindergarten entry and through the sixth grade, lower high school dropout rates and higher graduation rates. 20 Participation in home visitation programs decreases emergency room visits, and programs targeted to high-risk pregnant teenagers can cut incidences of child abuse nearly in half. 21 Home visiting programs also lead to more positive health outcomes for mothers, increased intervals between births, less use of welfare and food stamps, and increased father involvement. 22

Cost Benefits

Investing in effective intervention programs in early childhood yields high economic benefits. 23 Money invested in high quality home visitation programs reduces later costs to society. For example, community-based services to overburdened families are far less costly than the costs of child protective services, law enforcement, courts, foster care, health care, and the treatment of adults recovering from abuse. 24 A report by Washington State found a return of a minimum of $2.88 for every dollar invested in the Nurse-Family Partnership program, with a return of $5.70 for higher risk populations. The government achieves saving by lowering costs for health care, child protection, education, criminal justice, mental health, and government assistance. 25 A study by the RAND Corporation found cost benefits to a number of home visitation models. 26 Therefore, the Committee views investment in high quality home visitation programs to be not only good education, welfare, and health policy, but strong fiscal policy as well.

Targeting Services

Home visiting programs may target specific at-risk populations and can sometimes provide a universal approach to service delivery. Local communities make different decisions about which type of model to use, with some localities choosing to provide a universal approach in order to decrease potential stigmatization or to screen families to determine the need for more intensive services. Universal approaches have clear benefits. In a 1995 report, the U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect recommended a voluntary universal home visiting approach that reaches all families as an effective fatality prevention strategy. 27 Research on universal models of home visiting finds that the school readiness of children from non-poor families is improved by participation in home visitation programs. 28 Parent involvement in children's education is also increased by universal home visitation programs. 29 Moreover, home visitation programs promote early identification of developmental disabilities that occur in children regardless of socioeconomic level. However, given limited resources available for these programs, the Committee also recognizes the need to target resources to high need communities.

The Committee believes that H.R. 2343 strikes the right balance by targeting funds to high need communities while allowing states and local programs the flexibility to determine what type of model and approach best meets the needs of families within those communities. H.R. 2343 defines eligible families as those with a woman who is pregnant and the father of the child, if available, or a parent or primary caregiver of a child under the age of entry into kindergarten, including grandparents, foster parents, or other relatives of the child who serves as the primary caregiver of the child. H.R. 2343 requires states to identify and prioritize communities in high need of home visiting services, such as those with low student achievement, high rates of teen pregnancy, high proportions of low income families, high incidences of child abuse, high rates of children with developmental delays or disabilities, large concentrations of individuals who are English language learners, large concentrations of individuals currently serving in the Armed Forces, and large concentrations of individuals who formerly served in the Armed Forces. The bill also trusts the states and local programs to determine how to best serve the families in targeted communities. The Committee believes this flexibility is critical as it will allow local programs to evaluate an individual family's needs and make a determination based on those needs. For example, a local program could use a family needs assessment to determine that the risk of child abuse within a specific family was greater for a different family who had slightly less income. Similarly, the bill will provide programs with the discretion to determine that the family with income over the poverty line and struggling to raise a child with autism was in greater need of services than the family with income under the poverty line who is still doing well. This approach allows rural areas, which often find service delivery a challenge because of the stigma perceived by potential clients, to use a combined universal and targeted approach. In the end, this combined approach will lead to families in high need communities being more engaged in programs and programs being more successful. Again, given the limited resources available for such programs, the Committee believes these funds should be appropriately targeted. However, the Committee finds that an approach that specifically limits services to families under the federal poverty line may undermine the ability of states and local programs to best target these funds to children at-risk.

Program Quality and Accountability

The Committee believes strong accountability is critical when funding a new federal program. H.R. 2343 includes numerous provisions to ensure funds will be spent appropriately and effectively. For example, the Committee intends that only programs using proven research-based home visitation models should receive funds under this Act. Research indicates that high quality and effective programs share key characteristics. These include having evaluation components that connect specific program elements to specific outcomes; providing services long enough that a positive relationship between parents and the service provider can be established; employing well-trained and competent staff who follow a standardized curriculum; implementing high quality supervision and on-going professional development; having strong organizational capacity; and, providing linkages to other community resources and supports. 30 The bill requires states to fund only programs that meet these specific criteria and programs that adopt a clear and consistent model of home visitation that is research-based, grounded in empirically-based knowledge related to home visiting and child health or development; linked to program-determined outcomes; associated with a national organization or institution of higher education that has comprehensive home visitation standards; and has been in existence at least three years and has been evaluated, with the results of the evaluation published in a peer-reviewed journal. This approach allows states to choose the specific home visiting programs that meet the needs of their communities, and will ensure that funds will go only to programs using a model proven to be effective and designed to ensure standardized training and on-going professional development that will ensure high quality service delivery and continuous program improvement. The Committee intends that the training of all home visitors draws on practices based in evidence and theory to the maximum extent practicable. For example, there are a variety of programs that train home visitors using research-based strategies to develop caregivers' child-rearing skills in order to lower the likelihood of abuse or neglect and prepare children for school success.

Moreover, H.R. 2343 requires state applications to be reviewed by a qualified panel of experts. Because the funds authorized in this bill represent a large investment, it is important that states demonstrate the capacity to use the funds wisely and effectively.

The Committee recognizes that multiple professionals could serve as experts on childhood development, including psychologists or social workers with expertise in early child development and early childhood educators. The Committee believes the peer review panel will help ensure that objective and thorough consideration is given to each application.

H.R. 2343 prioritizes program evaluation to ensure funds are spent effectively and that Congress, the Department of Health and Human Services, states, and local programs have the information they need to make wise funding decisions and program improvements. In addition to requiring local programs to use models that track program-determined outcomes, the bill requires the Department of Health and Human Services to set-aside funds to conduct an independent evaluation of the activities carried out by the bill. The bill also requires states to set aside funding to conduct evaluations of the programs they fund under the bill. The Committee believes evaluation of these programs will enhance program accountability and ensure that high quality programs receive funding.

The Committee supports the focus on training and technical assistance in H.R. 2343 as it will improve program quality. The established national models of home visitation provide on-going training and technical assistance to local programs. Training and technical assistance activities support professional development, program improvement, and adherence to program standards and curriculum. By requiring set-asides for training and technical assistance, H.R. 2343 promotes program quality and integrity.

English Language Learners

English language learners (ELL) are a growing subgroup of children in America and are at substantial risk for academic problems. The number of ELL children enrolled in schools in the United States has increased substantially in the past decade. During the 2004-2005 academic year, there were an estimated 5.1 million ELL students enrolled in public pre-kindergarten, elementary, and secondary schools--a fifty-six percent increase since the 1994-1995 school year. 31 However, there is a larger share of ELL students in the lower grades, with approximately 52.6 percent enrolled in grades preK-five and 47.4 percent enrolled in grades six to twelve. 32 Based on the 2005 National Assessment for Educational Progress, only twenty-nine percent of ELL eighth-grade students scored at or above the basic achievement level for mathematics. Only twenty-nine percent of ELL eighth graders scored at or above the basic achievement level for reading. Furthermore, Hispanic ELL students are less likely to complete high school than Hispanics who are fluent in English. 33 Given these risks and the unique language development needs of ELL children and families, the Committee believes a competitive grant program targeted toward serving these children and their families is warranted. The Committee maintains that this will help ELL children arrive at school with better developed English language and literacy skills that will better prepare them to succeed in school.

During Committee consideration of H.R. 2343, the minority offered an amendment to prohibit services to undocumented immigrant families. This amendment would have actually denied services to children who are United States citizens. The amendment was soundly defeated. Unfortunately, the proponents of this amendment rely upon the false impression that large numbers of ELL children are undocumented. To the contrary, research indicates that over ninety percent of children under age five of immigrants are United States citizens. 34 It has also been shown that children of immigrants are at risk for slower cognitive and language development, as well as poor academic performance. 35 The Committee is greatly concerned about any amendment that would deny services to children who are United States citizens.

Military families

Military families are experiencing many new and significant challenges, including multiple and extended deployments and the return of injured and disabled parents. These challenges, characterized by uncertainty, separation, and sometimes the loss of a parent or spouse, can create high levels of stress for children and their parents. 36 Common conditions experienced by military families, such as geographic isolation and frequent and long separations, can be difficult for children. In pre-deployment periods, infants have been found to be fussy and change their eating habits. Preschoolers sometimes react by displaying tantrums, sadness, changes in eating patterns, and anxiety. Post- deployment concerns include the possibility of an increased risk of child abuse, especially for families with services members experiencing combat-related stress, post- traumatic stress disorder, or both. Recognizing the unique demands of military service and the need to support military families, the Congress provided appropriations for the Department of Defense to fund early childhood home visitation programs for military families. This has provided support to families on twelve military bases but has not been sufficient funding to provide services to all families who may seek these services.

The Committee greatly appreciates the effort and sacrifice of our Armed Forces and their families and strongly believes every effort should be made to support these families. Providing premiere health and mental health care to our active servicemen and women and our veterans is paramount. In addition, providing services such as home visitation programs, that can decrease family stress, assist with separations and reunions, and support parents and children, represent a key method of supporting military families and ensuring those parents have the tools they need to support healthy child development.

H.R. 2343 addresses this need by authorizing $20 million for fiscal year 2009 and such sums thereafter through fiscal year 2013 for home visiting programs for military families.

V. SECTION-BY-SECTION ANALYSIS

Section 1. Short title

Cites the short title as the `Education Begins at Home Act of 2008.'

Section 2. Findings and purposes

Sets forth findings and the purpose of the bill.

Section 3. Definitions

Sets forth definitions for the terms `eligible family,' `English language learner,' `home visitation,' `Indian tribe,' `Secretary,' `State,' `Territories and possessions,' and `tribal organization.'

Section 4. Grants for Early Childhood Home Visitation

Authorizes $150,000,000 for fiscal year 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2010 through 2013 for the Secretary of Health and Human Services (HHS), in consultation with the Secretary of Education, to make grants to States, Indian tribes, tribal organizations, territories and possessions to establish or expand high quality programs of early childhood home visitation. Includes specific reservations for an independent evaluation, Federal administrative costs, payments to Indian tribes or tribal organizations, payments to territories and possessions, and training and technical assistance for States. State allotments are determined by formula.

Includes requirements regarding the contents of state grant applications. Specifies the composition of a peer review panel to be convened to make recommendations to the Secretary regarding the approval of applications and the criteria which the panel shall consider when reviewing applicants. Includes the allow use of funds for states, including a reservation of 10 percent for providing training and technical assistance to early childhood home visitation programs and a cap of 5 percent for administrative purposes.

Requires that states receiving funds under the Act maintain their aggregate expenditures within the State for early childhood home visitation, and additionally requires a state match of 10 percent in fiscal year 2011, 20 percent in fiscal year 2012, and 30 percent in fiscal year 2013. Includes annual State reporting requirements to the Secretary.

Section 5. Targeted grants for Early Childhood Home Visitation for Families with English Language Learners

Authorizes $20,000,000 for fiscal year 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2010 through 2013 for the Secretary of Health and Human Services, in consultation with the Secretary of Education, to make grants on a competitive basis to support and expand delivery of high quality early childhood home visitation programs to eligible families with English language learners. Defines eligible applicants and the requirements for applications by such entities. Specifies the process for peer review of grant applications. Includes an allowable use of funds and reporting requirements for grant recipients. Requires that grant funds supplement and not supplant Federal and non-Federal funds.

Section 6. Targeted grants for Early Childhood Home Visitation for Military Families

Authorizes $20,000,000 for fiscal year 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2010 through 2013 for the Secretary of Defense, in consultation with the Secretary of HHS and the Secretary of Education, to make grants on a competitive basis to support and expand delivery of high quality early childhood home visitation programs to eligible families with a family member in the Armed Forces. Defines eligible applicants and the requirements for applications by such entities. Specifies the process for peer review of grant applications. Includes an allowable use of funds and reporting requirements for grant recipients. Requires that grant funds supplement and not supplant Federal and non-Federal funds.

Section 7. Evaluation

Requires the Secretary to conduct, through grant or contract, an independent evaluation of the effectiveness of home visitation programs carried out under the Act. Specifies a timeline for the Secretary to submit to Congress an interim report and a final report on the evaluation.

Section 8. Reports to Congress

Requires the Secretary to annually report to Congress on the activities carried out under the Act and specifies what information must be included in such reports.

Section 9. Supporting New Parents Through Hospital Education

Authorizes such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2009 through 2013 for the Secretary to carry out a public information and educational campaign to inform the public and new parents about the importance of proper care for infants and children under 5 years of age.

VI. EXPLANATION OF AMENDMENTS

The Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute, as amended, is explained in the body of this report.

VII. APPLICATION OF LAW TO THE LEGISLATIVE BRANCH

Section 102(b)(3) of Public Law 104-1, the Congressional Accountability Act, requires a description of the application of this bill to the legislative branch. H.R. 2343 authorizes early childhood home visitation programs. The bill has no direct impact on legislative branch employees.

VIII. UNFUNDED MANDATE STATEMENT

Section 423 of the Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act (as amended by Section 101(a)(2) of the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act, P.L. 104-4) requires a statement of whether the provisions of the reported bill include unfunded mandates. H.R. 2343 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined by the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (UMRA).

IX. EARMARK STATEMENT

H.R. 2343 does not contain any congressional earmarks, limited tax benefits, or limited tariff benefits as defined in clauses 9(d), 9(e) or 9(f) of rule XXI of the Rules of the House of Representatives.

X. ROLL CALL

Insert graphic folio 31 HR818.001

Insert graphic folio 32 HR818.002

XI. STATEMENT OF OVERSIGHT FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE COMMITTEE

In compliance with clause 3(c)(1) of rule XIII and clause 2(b)(1) of rule X of the Rules of the House of Representatives, the Committee advises that the Committee's oversight findings and recommendations are reflected in the body of this report.

XII. NEW BUDGET AUTHORITY AND CBO COST ESTIMATE

With respect to the requirements of clause 3(c)(2) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives and section 308(a) of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974 and with respect to requirements of 3(c)(3) of rule XIII of the Rules of the House of Representatives and section 402 of the Congressional Budget Act of 1974, the Committee has received the following estimate for H.R. 2343 from the Director of the Congressional Budget Office:

U.S. Congress,

Congressional Budget Office,

Washington, DC, July 8, 2008.

Hon. GEORGE MILLER,
Chairman, Committee on Education and Labor,
House of Representatives, Washington, DC.

DEAR MR. CHAIRMAN: The Congressional Budget Office has prepared the enclosed cost estimate for H.R. 2343, the Education Begins at Home Act of 2008.

If you wish further details on this estimate, we will be pleased to provide them. The CBO staff contact is Jonathan Morancy.

Sincerely,

Robert A. Sunshine

(For Peter R. Orszag, Director).

Enclosure.

H.R. 2343. Education Begins at Home Act of 2008

Summary: H.R. 2343 would authorize the appropriation of $190 million for 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for each year from 2010 through 2013 for grants to provide home visitation services during early childhood. In addition, the bill would authorize the appropriation of such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2009 through 2013 to provide a public information and educational campaign regarding proper care for children under five years of age.

CBO estimates that implementing the bill would cost $57 million in 2009 and $767 million over the 2009-2013 period, assuming the appropriation of the necessary amounts. Enacting H.R. 2343 would not affect direct spending or revenues.

H.R. 2343 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in the Unfunded Mandates Reform Act (UMRA); any costs to state, local, or tribal governments would be incurred voluntarily.

Estimated cost to the Federal Government: The estimated budgetary impact of H.R. 2343 is shown in the following table. The costs of this legislation fall within budget functions 050 (national defense) and 500 (education, training, employment, and social services). 



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                                                            By fiscal year, in millions of dollars--                               


                                                                                                2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2009-2013 


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CHANGES IN SPENDING SUBJECT TO APPROPRIATION                                                                                       


Early Childhood Home Visitation:                                                                                                   


Estimated Authorization Level                                                                    150  153  156  159  162       780 


Estimated Outlays                                                                                 45   90  153  156  159       603 


Early Childhood Home Visitation--English Language Learners:                                                                        


Estimated Authorization Level                                                                     20   20   21   21   22       104 


Estimated Outlays                                                                                  6   12   20   21   21        80 


Early Childhood Home Visitation--Military Families:                                                                                


Estimated Authorization Level                                                                     20   20   21   21   22       104 


Estimated Outlays                                                                                  6   12   20   21   21        80 


Public Information and Education Campaign:                                                                                         


Estimated Authorization Level                                                                      1    1    1    1    1         5 


Estimated Outlays                                                                                  *    1    1    1    1         4 


Total Changes                                                                                                                      


Estimated Authorization Level                                                                    191  194  199  202  207       993 


Estimated Outlays                                                                                 57  115  194  199  202       767 


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Basis of estimate: For this estimate, CBO assumes that H.R. 2343 will be enacted near the end of fiscal year 2008, the authorized amounts will be appropriated by the beginning of each fiscal year, and outlays will follow historical spending patterns.

The bill would authorize appropriations for three programs to provide home visitation services during early childhood and would increase spending by $763 million over the 2009-2013 period, assuming appropriation of the estimated amounts. For each of those programs, the bill would authorize a specific amount for 2009 and such sums as may be necessary for the years 2010-2013. CBO assumes that the amount authorized for 2009 would be adjusted for inflation for each year through 2013. Specifically H.R. 2343 would:

 Authorize the appropriation of $150 million for 2009 for grants to provide visitation services to all families. CBO estimates that implementing this program would increase discretionary costs by $603 million over the 2009-2013 period.

 Authorize the appropriation of $20 million for 2009 for grants to provide visitation services targeted to families with individuals learning English. CBO estimates that implementing this program would increase discretionary costs by $80 million over the 2009-2013 period.

 Authorize the appropriation of $20 million for 2009 for grants to provide visitation services targeted to military families. CBO estimates that implementing this program would increase discretionary costs by $80 million over the 2009-2013 period.

Finally, the bill would authorize such sums as may be necessary for fiscal years 2009 through 2013 to provide a public education campaign designed to teach new parents about the importance of proper care for children under five years of age. CBO estimates that this provision would cost $4 million over the 2009-2013 period, assuming the availability of appropriated funds.

Estimated impact on state, local, and tribal governments: H.R. 2343 contains no intergovernmental or private-sector mandates as defined in UMRA. Grant funds authorized in the bill would benefit state, local, and tribal governments that provide home visitation services to families with young children. Any costs those governments incur to comply with grant requirements, including providing matching funds or submitting reports, would be incurred voluntarily.

Estimate prepared by: Federal Costs: Jonathan Morancy. Impact on State, Local, and Tribal Governments: Lisa Ramirez-Branum. Impact on the Private Sector: Patrick Bernhardt.

Estimate approved by: Keith Fontenot, Deputy Assistant Director for Health and Human Resources, Budget Analysis Division.

XIII. STATEMENT OF GENERAL PERFORMANCE GOALS AND OBJECTIVES


In accordance with clause 3(c) of rule XIII of the House of Representatives, the goal of H.R. 2343 is to provide states, Indian tribes, tribal organizations, territories and possessions authority and funding, through the Secretary of Health and Human Services, to deliver high quality programs of early childhood home visitation. The Committee expects the Department of Health and Human Services to comply with H.R. 2343 and implement the changes to the law in accordance with these stated goals.

XIV. CONSTITUTIONAL AUTHORITY STATEMENT


Under clause 3(d)(1) of rule XIII of the House of Representatives, the Committee must include a statement citing the specific powers granted to Congress in the Constitution to enact the law proposed by H.R. 2343. The Committee believes that the amendments made by this bill are within Congress' authority under Article I, section 8, clause 18 of the U.S. Constitution.

XV. COMMITTEE ESTIMATE


Clause 3(d)(2) of rule XIII of the House of Representatives requires an estimate and a comparison of the costs that would be incurred in carrying out H.R. 2343. However, clause 3(d)(3)(B) of that rule provides that this requirement does not apply when the Committee has included in its report a timely submitted cost estimate of the bill prepared by the Director of the Congressional Budget Office under section 402 of the Congressional Budget Act.

XVI. CHANGES IN EXISTING LAW MADE BY THE BILL, AS REPORTED


None.

XVII. COMMITTEE CORRESPONENCE


None.

ENDNOTES


 1 Testimony of Deborah Philips, Hearing, U.S. House of Representatives, Committee on Education and Labor, Investing in Early Education: Paths to Improving Children's Success, January 23, 2008.

 2 Presentation by Pat Levitt, Ph.D, Director, Vanderbilt Kennedy Center for Research on Human Development, U.S. House of Representatives, National Summit on America's Children (`National Summit'), Washington D.C., May 22, 2007.

 3 Huttenlocher, J., Haight, W., Bryk, A., Seltzer, M., & Lyons, T. (1991). Early vocabulary growth: Relation to language input and gender. Developmental Psychology, 27, 236-248.

 4 See Presentation by Megan Gunnar, Ph.D., Regents Professor and Distinguished McKnight University Professor, Institute of Child Development, University of Minnesota, U.S. House of Representatives, National Summit; see also Friedman, R.J & Chase-Lansdale, P.L. (2001), Chronic adversities, in M. Rutter and E. Taylor (Eds.), Child and Adolescent Psychiatry: Modern Approaches, 4th Edition. Blackwell Scientific Publications.

 5 Felitti, V., Anda, R., Nordenberg, D., Williamson, D., Spitz, A., Edwards, V., et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 1998;14(4):245-58; see also Presentation by Megan Gunnar, Ph.D., U.S. House of Representatives, National Summit.

 6 Gomby, D.S., `Home Visitation in 2005: Outcomes for Children and Parents', Working Paper No 7, Invest in Kids Working Group, July 2005. Available at www.ced.org/projects/kids.shtml

 7 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children.s Bureau, Child Maltreatment: 2006 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2008).

 8 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau, Child Maltreatment: 2006. Table 3-9. (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2008).

 9 D. Cicchetti, S. Toth and F. Rogosch, (2000). The development of psychological wellness in maltreated children, in D. Cicchetti, J. Rappaport, I. Sandler and R.P. Weissberg, Editors, The promotion of wellness in children and adolescents, Child Welfare League of America Inc, Washington, pp. 395-426; Corso, P.S., Edwards, V.J., Fang, X.M., Mercey, J.A (2008). Health-related quality of life among adults who experienced maltreatment during childhood. American Journal of Public Health 98 (6): 1094-1100; Pelcovitz, D., Kaplan, S.J., DeRosa, R.R., Mandel, F.S., and Salzinger, S. (2000). Psychiatric disorder in adolescents exposed to violence and physical abuse, American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 70, pp. 360-369.

 10 Wang, C.T. & Holton, J. September 2007. Total Estimated Cost of Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States. Economic Impact Study. Prevent Child Abuse America. Chicago, IL.

 11 U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Administration on Children, Youth and Families, Children's Bureau, Child Maltreatment: 2006 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 2008).

 12 Felitti V, Anda R, Nordenberg D, Williamson D, Spitz A, Edwards V, et al. (1998). Relationship of childhood abuse and household dysfunction to many of the leading causes of death in adults. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 14(4):245-58; Runyan D, Wattam C, Ikeda R, Hassan F, Ramiro L. Child abuse and neglect by parents and other caregivers, in Krug E, Dahlberg LL, Mercy JA, Zwi AB, Lozano R, editors. World Report on Violence and Health. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002. p. 59-86. Available from URL: www.who.int/violenceXinjuryXprevention/violence/globalXcampaign/en/chap3.pdf

 13 Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Transcript, April 3, 2008. http://www.cdc.gov/media/transcripts/2008/t080403.htm 

 14 Ramey, C.T., & Ramey, S.L. (2004). Early learning and school readiness: Can early intervention make a difference? Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 50 (4), 471-491; Entwisle, D.R. (1995). The role of schools in sustaining benefits of early childhood programs. The Future of Children, 5, 133-144.

 15 U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Kindergarten Class of 1998-1999.

 16 Presentation by Dolores Norton, Ph.D, Samuel Deutsch Professor, School of Social Services Administration, University of Chicago, U.S. House of Representatives, National Summit.

 17 Forehand, R., Biggar, H., & Kotchik, B.A. (1998). Cumulative risk across family stressors: Short- and long-term effects for adolescents. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26(2), 119-128.

 18 Sweet, M.A. & Appelbaum, M.I. (2004), Is home visiting an effective strategy? A meta-analytic review of home visiting programs for families with young children, Child Development, 75(5):1435-1456.

 19 Geeraert, L., Van den Noorgate, W., Grietens, H., and Onghena, P. (2004). The effects of early prevention programs for families with young children at risk for physical child abuse and neglect: A meta-analysis. Child Maltreatment, 9(3), 277-291.

 20 Bradley, R. & Gilkey, B. (2002). The impacts of the Home Instructional Program for Preschool Youngsters on school performance in 3rd and 6th grade. Early Education and Development, 13(3), 302-311; Levenstein, P., Levenstein, S., Shiminski, J. & Stolzberg, J. (1998). Long-term impact of a verbal interaction program for at-risk toddlers: An exploratory study of high school outcomes in a replication of the Mother-Child Home Program. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 19, 267-285.

 21 Olds, D.L., Kitzman, H., Hanks, C., Cole, R., Anson, E., Sidora, K., Luckey, D.W., Henderson, C., Holmberg, J., Tutt, R.A., et al. (2007). Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal and child functioning: age-nine follow-up of randomized trial. Pediatrics, 120(4): 832-45. Olds, D.L., Robinson, J., Pettitt, L., Luckey D.W., Holmbery J., Ng, R.K., Isacks, K., Sheff, K. (2004). Effects of home visits by paraprofessionals and by nurses: age-four follow-up of a randomized trial. Pediatrics, 114(6): 560-8.

 22 Olds, D.L., Kitzman, H., Cole, R., Robinson, J., Sidora, K., Luckey, D., Henderson, C., Hanks, C., Bondy, J., Homberg, J. Effects of nurse home visiting on maternal life-course and child development: age-six follow-up of randomized trial. Pediatrics, 114(6): 1550-9.

 23 Keynote Address by James Heckman, Professor of Economics, Director of the Center for Social Program Evaluation, Harris School of Public Policy, University of Chicago, U.S. House of Representatives, National Summit.

 24 U.S. General Accounting Office (1992). Child Abuse: Prevention Programs Need Greater Emphasis. GAO/HRS-92-99.

 25 Testimony of Michelle Ridge, Hearing, U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Education Reform, September 27, 2006.

 26 Karoly, L., Kilburn, M.R., and Cannon, J.S. (2005). Early Childhood Interventions: Proven Results, Future Promise.

 27 U.S. Advisory Board on Child Abuse and Neglect (1995) A Nation's Shame: Fatal Child Abuse and Neglect in the United States.

 28 Zigler, E., Pfannenstiel, J.C., & Seitz, V. (2008). The Parents as Teachers program and school success: A replication and extension. Journal of Primary Prevention, 29, 103-120.

 29 Pfannenstiel, J. (1998). New Parents as Teachers project: A follow-up investigation. Overland Park, KS: Research & Training Associates.

 30 Testimony of Deborah Daro, Hearing, U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Education Reform, Perspectives on Early Childhood Home Visitation Programs, September 27, 2006; see also Testimony of Heather B. Weiss, Hearing, U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Education and Labor, H.R. 2343, The Education Begins at Home Act, June 11, 2008.

 31 Pearson, G. (2006). Ask NCELA No. 1: How many school-aged English language learners (ELLs) are there in the U.S.?' Washington, DC: National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition and Language Instruction Education Programs, http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/expert/faq/011eps.htm.

 32 Fix, M. & Passel, J. (January 2003). U.S. Immigration Trends and Implications for Schools. Washington DC: Immigration Studies Program, Urban Institute.

 33 Fry, R. (2003). Hispanic Youth Dropping Out of U.S. Schools: Measuring the Challenge. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center.

 34 Calderon, M. (2007). Buenos Principios: Latino Children in the Earliest Years of Life (Washington, DC: National Council of La Raza), iv, available at http://www.nclr.org/content/publications/download/45609

 35 See, e.g., Fry, R. (2003). Hispanic Youth Dropping Out of U.S. Schools: Measuring the Challenge. Washington, DC: Pew Hispanic Center; Calderon, M. (2007). Buenos Principios: Latino Children in the Earliest Years of Life (Washington, DC: National Council of La Raza), iv, available at http://www.nclr.org/content/publications/download/45609

 36 Johnson, SJ.J., Sherman, M.D., Hoffman, J.S., Johnson, P.L. et al. (February 2007). The Psychological Needs of the U.S. Military Service Members and Their Families: A Preliminary Report. American Psychological Association. Presidential Task Force on Military Deployment Services for Youth, Families, and Service Members. Washington DC.

MINORITY VIEWS


Republican Members of the Committee on Education and Labor believe that parents play an essential role in a child's development. Committee Republicans understand that home visitation programs can increase school readiness and promote positive parenting practices. Further, home visitation assists in child abuse and neglect prevention and in the early identification of developmental and health delays. While Committee Democrats worked to come to a compromise on the bill's language for markup, Committee Republicans believe there is still work to be done to strengthen the language. We are concerned that the only two amendments offered by Republicans were rejected, even though they would have strengthened the bill.

CHANGES FROM THE INTRODUCED BILL TO THE MARKUP SUBSTITUTE


During the Committee markup of H.R. 2343, Chairman George Miller (D-CA) offered an Amendment in the Nature of a Substitute that made several essential changes to the introduced bill. Most importantly, in order to ensure that the most disadvantaged families are taken into consideration, the amendment included changes to the funding formula to be based on the number of children aged birth to 5 years from families whose income is below the poverty line. Additionally, a provision that required States to provide an assurance that they will prioritize serving communities that are in high need of services was included.

The Substitute also made a handful of other changes to the introduced bill that Republicans believe will help make the legislation stronger. This includes changing the structure of the authorization of appropriations to span 5 years; authorizing $150 million for the first year of the State grant program and $20 million each for the first year of the English language learner and military family targeted programs; and requiring programs receiving funding to adopt a clear, consistent model that is research based, linked to program determined outcomes, and has been in existence at least 3 years. The Substitute also ensured that representatives from home visitation programs are included in an existing State level early childhood coordinating body such as the State Advisory Council on Early Childhood Care and Education as defined in Head Start (striking the original requirement for the coordinating body to include a variety of representatives from child welfare programs, child health insurance programs, food stamp programs, etc.). The Substitute included a State match requirement beginning in Fiscal Year 2011 at 10 percent growing to a match of 30 percent in Fiscal Year 2013. Finally, the Substitute removed language requiring parents to sign a written waiver if they do not wish to participate in a parent training class.

TARGETING PROGRAMS TO THOSE MOST IN NEED AND ENSURING ONLY LEGAL U.S. RESIDENTS AND CITIZENS CAN PARTICIPATE IN THE FEDERALLY FUNDED PROGRAM


Unfortunately, the two Republican amendments offered during the Committee markup were not accepted. Committee Republicans believe that these amendments would have made the bill a great deal stronger.

Congressman Mark Souder (R-IN) offered an amendment to prioritize services for low-income participants at or below the poverty level. As introduced, the bill does not contain a requirement that States and other eligible entities ensure program participants are the most economically disadvantaged citizens. The Souder amendment simply asked States applying for home visitation grants from the Federal government to provide assurances that low-income families would be given priority for participation as well as those communities in high need of home visitation services, to the extent feasible. Committee Republicans agree that local communities are the best judge of those in need of services within the community, and that's why the Souder amendment was crafted deliberately as a priority for the funding, while still maintaining flexibility at the local level. However, we believe that Federal funds must be used to serve those in greatest need first; without a priority for serving those who are most disadvantaged, Republicans believe there is a danger that funds could be siphoned away by higher income communities who may be more savvy and able to access services without Federal assistance. This amendment provided flexibility for programs to serve other participants in need of services, as long as priority was first given to those low-income families in need of services. This amendment was defeated on a party line vote.

Congressman Randy Kuhl (R-NY) offered an amendment